Climate
Change Impacts on Agriculture and Livestock in Nepal
Shree Bhagavan Thakur1 e-mail:
shreebhagavanthakur@gmail.com, and Gyanendra Karki 2 e-mail:
gyanendra.karki@forestrynepal.org
Abstract
Agriculture is the main stay of
Nepal's economy and is highly vulnerable to climate change due to climate
variability, climate-induced hazards and risks of the natural disasters. Large
proportion of marginal farmers with small landholding, limited irrigation, low
income level, limited institutional capacity, and greater dependency of
agriculture on climate-sensitive natural resources has accelerated vulnerability.
Climate change has observed effects on phenology of plants and breeding
behavior of animals. This will likely affect production and productivity of
agriculture and livestock from increased pest and disease infestation, and land
degradation. It will further impact on soil fertility, animal fertility and
behavior, and quality and quantity of
food, feed and fodders, and biodiversity. Ultimately, higher cost of production and price of commodity is adversely
affecting farm revenue, employment, income and finally on GDP. Insights on the
climate change impacts on agriculture and livestock will help to various
stakeholders to advance response mechanisms, including through policy, plan and
strategy.
Key words: Agriculture; climate change; impacts; livestock
and vulnerable.
Introduction
Nepal is one of the most climate vulnerable
country both by virtue of its rogued and mountainous topography and the
socio-culturally embedded poverty coupled with its status of Least Developed
Country. The countries with the most risks are characterized by high levels of
poverty, dense populations, exposure to climate-related events, and their
reliance on flood and drought-prone agricultural land (Maplecroft, 2012). Agriculture
in Nepal is highly vulnerable to climate change due to climate variability and related
risks of natural disasters. Large proportion of marginal farmers with small
landholding, limited irrigation, low income level, limited institutional
capacity, and greater dependency of agriculture on climate-sensitive natural
resources increase the degree of vulnerability (Regmi and Adhikari, 2007).
Climatic variables projected by Organization
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) based on General Circulation Model (GCM) estimated that
the mean annual temperature is likely to increase by an average of 1.20C
by 2030, 1.70C by 2050 and 30C by 2100 compared to a
pre-2000 baseline along with Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES B2)
scenario. Likewise, Regional Circulation Models (RCM)
project the mean annual temperature to
increase by 1.40C by 2030, 2.80C by 2060 and 4.70C
by 2090 (NCVST, 2009).
OECD projected almost no change
in winter precipitation in western Nepal and up to 5-10% increase in eastern Nepal.
However, it projected an increase in precipitation for the whole country in the
range of 15 to 20% during summer. NCVST, 2009 projected an increase in monsoon
rainfall in eastern and central Nepal as compared to western Nepal but an
increase in monsoon and post-monsoon rainfall as well as an increase in the
intensity of rainfall, and a decrease in winter precipitation. The overall annual precipitation may be decreasing by 2 % of the
baseline amount by 2020s. However, it increases by 6 % and 12 % of the baseline
by 2050s and 2080s respectively (MoSTE, 2014b).
Agriculture is affected most when
drought adversely impacts rain‐fed agriculture, largely in developing countries
where the majority of farmers practice subsistence agriculture. In terms of
agriculture and food security, local communities have identified changes in climate
as being largely responsible for declining crop and livestock production.
Nepal’s vulnerable subsistence farming economy is facing risk due to changes in stream flow, a more intense and potentially
erratic monsoon rainfall, and flooding (JVS/GWP, 2015).
This paper collates data and
information on major climate change impacts on agriculture and livestock to
inform policy-makers, development workers, climate change advocates and producers
to take into account the measures to help climate vulnerable to adapt to, and
build resilience to climate change impacts.
Methodology
This study is based on rigorous review
of climate change and agriculture related pertinent documents that were brought
forth in Nepal's NAP process. It included but not limited to climate change
convention related documents, national policies and strategies including plans
and programmes, legal documents, published reports, journal articles,
literatures and research papers. The information was drawn from national and
international sources and they were critically scanned, skimmed, reviewed,
shorted and analyzed for this study. This study was done from June 2016 to
November 2016.
Results
and Discussions
Global warming and climate
change are the greatest concerns since they affect human beings and the whole
ecosystem. Its impact on agriculture is more pronounced and easily understood
as agro- sector is more dependent on nurture. In Nepal, early symptoms of
climate change due to alarmingly increased temperature have been observed.
Furthermore, Nepal was experienced sufficiency in paddy production and it has
turned to a rice importer from an exporter till 1980s. Likewise, the Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG)[1] and Agriculture Development
Strategy (ADS)[2]
2015–2030, reported that Nepal faces food grains deficit in more than 13
districts in the hill and high hill regions.
Crop and
livestock farming, in different combination, are major way of life in the
communities. Cereal crops including rice, wheat, maize, millet, barely and
buckwheat is the mainstay of Nepal’s agriculture. These crops are greatly
affected by weather variability including drought. The impacts, though expected
to become higher in the mountains compared to low lying Tarai region, are
detrimental to both regions and ultimately to agricultural production, food
security and the people's economy. Moreover, agriculture sector performance
depends mainly on conducive weather conditions, and the agrarian poor community
suffers most from any adverse situation brought about by climate change (MoE,
2010a).
Impacts
of climate change on agriculture
Agriculture
is the mainstay of rural food and economy that
accounts for about 96% of the total water use in the country ‐
suffers a lot from erratic weather patterns such as heat
stress, longer dry seasons and uncertain rainfall, since 64% of
the cultivated area fully depends on
monsoon rainfall (CBS 2006). Declined yield due to
unfavorable weather and climate will lead to vulnerability
in the form of food insecurity, hunger and shorter life
expectancies (Ebi et al. 2007), and the rural poor will
again be the hardest hit. Floods carrying rocks, sediments
and debris increase the intensity of landslides and erosion; deteriorate soil
and water quality; wash away
houses and properties; cause human injuries and
deaths; destroy infrastructure such as schools, roads, and markets (Chaudhary and
Aryal, 2009).
In Nepal, losses have occurred in agricultural sector due to
climatic events (Tables 1 and 2) in the past four decades
Events
|
Loss (in hectares)
|
Drought
|
329332 (38.85%)
|
Flood
|
196977 (23.25%)
|
Hailstorm
|
117518 (13.86%)
|
Rains
|
54895 (6.47%)
|
Strong wind
|
23239 (2.74%)
|
Cold waves
|
21794 (2.57%)
|
Others (forest epidemic, snow storm,
fire, storm, etc.)
|
83336 (9.83%)
|
Total
|
847648
|
Source: IFAD (2013)
The
highest loss of land was from drought (38.85%) followed by flood (23.25%),
hailstorm (13.86%), rains (6.47%), strong winds (2.74%) and cold waves (2.57%).
It is likely that a variety of climate-induced threats will extend the impacts in
new areas. Rapid population growth, shrinking farm size in the Tarai Region and
continued unplanned agriculture in hazard-prone areas are expected to add to
the damage and losses if no counter measures are put in place timely. The
cropping intensity in climate vulnerable areas is increasing because of demand
for food.
Crops
|
Year
|
|||||||
2002
|
2003
|
2004
|
2005
|
2006
|
2007
|
2008
|
2009
|
|
Paddy
|
115000
|
6967
|
116506
|
3585
|
120000
|
88800
|
30873
|
92000
|
Maize
|
4
435
|
954
|
1293
|
20
|
47
|
4271
|
549
|
1700
|
Millet
|
-
|
-
|
500
|
419
|
-
|
1451
|
3
|
-
|
Others
|
2067
|
611
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
324
|
-
|
Total
|
121502
|
8532
|
118299
|
4024
|
120047
|
94522
|
31749
|
93700
|
Source: IFAD (2013)
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) also assessed
impacts of climate change on global cereal production and concluded that
negative impact of climate change on world cereal production may vary from 0.6%
to 0.9%, but that in South Asia, the impact could be as high as 18.2% to 22.1%
(von Braun, 2007). Within South Asia, impacts are more pronounced in mountain
areas than in the plains. It means, impacts of the climate change are high in
Nepal. On contrary, some experiments have shown opposite results, increasing
crop yield particularly rice and wheat with increase in climate variables
(Malla, 2008). However, the findings of this study show the net negative effect
(MoSTE, 2014b).
Decline in rainfall from November to April has adversely
affected the winter and spring crops. Impacts of climate change on agriculture
are in major multidimensional and intricately vicious as 'agriculture' is a function
of several biotic and abiotic factors. Climate change will likely affect
various components in a location-specific system of agriculture through its
impacts in biophysical and socio-economic factors with ultimate negative
effects on farm productivity. Positive impacts of climate change are also
predicted on crop and animal production (Gautam and Pokhrel, 2010).
The perceived impacts on
agriculture were decreased crop yield, reduced soil moisture, and increased
incidence of new pests and invasive plant species. Such impacts were fairly
heterogeneous in distribution. The Salyantar village of Dhadhing, a raised
flat-land of river deposition already stuck in the grip of water stress, was
found exacerbated by the effect of climate change (Paudyal et al. 2015).
The major
impacts speculated in crop husbandry are declining availability of water for
agricultural uses, hindrance in operation of conventional irrigation systems
and decreasing water use efficiency, increasingly degrading agricultural land,
increasing depletion of land from agricultural uses, diseases and pest
epidemics and increasing crop management risks. Those associated with poor
availability of quality planting materials and technologies, catering changing
context needs, are foreseen to affect crop production and economic sustenance
of farmers adversely (MoE, 2010b).
Many studies have attempted to
estimate impacts of climate change on agriculture mostly by combining crop growth
models with economic models. The climate change has potential impacts on costs
of production, farm revenues, farm value, employment, income, consumption, and
finally on the GDP. Though several studies have been done on the effects of
climate change on crop production mostly using crop simulation models based on
different scenarios of GHG emissions, temperature rise and risks of extreme
events, but the studies on the costs to the farmers are very limited. Effect of
climate change on crop productivity is particularly sensitive because of its
strong linkage with food security.
An economic Assessment of
Climate Change in Key Sectors has estimated direct cost of current climate
variability and extreme events equivalent to 1.5 to 2 % of current GDP/year
(approximately USD 270-360 million/year in 2013 prices) and much higher in
extreme years (MoSTE, 2014a).
Projection
has shown that the net decrease in rice production will be 51 thousand metric
tons in 2020; 216 thousand metric tons in 2050 and 412 thousand metric tons in
2080. The decrease in 2020 is 1.6% of the present production, that in 2050 is
6.7% of the present production and in 2080 12.9% of the present production.
Likewise, with the mixed effects of temperature and precipitation, the wheat
production in the main wheat growing areas is projected to decrease by 176
thousand tons in 2020, a small increase of 64 thousand metric tons in 2050 and
a decrease of 111 thousand metric tons in 2080. The projected changes in
production is equivalent to a 15.5% decrease in 2020, 5.6% increase in 2050 and
9.7% decrease in 2080 in terms of present level of production. Everything else
remaining the same, the national loss in food production is expected to be 5.3%
in 2020, 3.5% in 2050 and 12.1% in 2080. The loss of food grain thus accounts
to 435 thousand metric tons in 2020, 302 thousand metric tons in 2050 and 1040
thousand metric tons in 2080 (MoSTE, 2014).
CO2
concentration causes partial closure of stomata, which reduces water loss by
transpiration and thus improves water-use efficiency (Rotter
and van de Geijn, 1999). Other things remaining equal,
this leads to improved crop yield, even in conditions of mild water stress. The
effect is much larger for C3 plants (rice, wheat, tomato), but there is also a
small effect for C4 plants like maize, sorghum, sugarcane. Effects on yield,
biomass and photosynthesis have been demonstrated in many studies using growth
chambers, and a recent review by Long et al. (2006) indicates that yield
increases for several C3 crops may be of the order of 20–30% at elevated CO2
concentrations of 550 ppm. Tubiello et al. (2007) vigorously defend the data from enclosure experiments (and
the crop model developments that were built on their foundation).
They
also suggest that lower crop responses to elevated CO2 of the
magnitudes in question would not significantly alter projections of global food
supply (Tubiello et al., 2007), although the effects at more local scales may be more
important in the context of food security. The AR4 gives figures of 10–25%
yield increases under unstressed conditions for C3 crops, and 0–10% increases
for C4 crops, at 550 ppm atmospheric CO2 concentrations.
The
climate change affects the food security adversely at all four levels—global,
national, household and individual. It is realized that among the climate
parameters, the rise in minimum temperature reduces yield of rainy season crops
affecting national self-sufficiency of food grains. The climate change affects
the entire food system from production, processing, distribution, consumption
and utilization. Food security in Nepal is particularly vulnerable to climate
change due to low level of human control over the water and temperature and
fragile ecosystems that get easily affected from the climate change and related
extreme weather events (Pant, 2012).
Impacts of climate change on livestock
Global
warming has remarkable effects on the phenology of plants and the breeding
behavior of animals that are highly sensitive to photoperiod and heat. Several
studies have confirmed the change in breeding habits (e.g. courtship calling,
birthing, mating, bird singing) in animals and insects, and in the blooming and
flowering time of plants, from a few days to as early as a month before
historical precedents (Hersteinsson and MacDonald 1992, Grabherr et al. 1994,
Parmesan 1996, Groom et al. 2006).
The declining forage production in natural pasture due to
poor emergence of grasses, pastoral degradation and invasive species,
increasing prevalence of animal parasites and vector-borne and parasitic
diseases, heat stresses especially in pig, eroding breeds of sheep and pig,
transhumance system loss, changes in animal reproductive behavior especially in
terms of heat-period and fertility, shortage of feed ingredient and increased
production/emission of GHGs due to animal health reasons have been major impacts
and concerns of climate change in animal husbandry. It has also been foreseen
the outbreak of feed toxicity, nutritional diseases and poor health in farm
animals resulting in higher mortality rate, increasing production costs and low
productivity as consequences of the impacts there by affecting animal herders'
livelihood (MoSTE, 2014a).
There
is a growing concern on the effects of the climate change on livestock
production. Dixon et al. (2003) noted that there are likely to be
smaller impacts on livestock yields per se, compared with grassland
biomass, because of the ability of livestock to adjust consumption in response
to the changes. There is still another type of reporting that the net revenues
from livestock for small farmers will be up by 25 %, and that for large farmers
goes down by 22 % (Seo and Mendelsohn, 2006). This is due to increased market
price to all the farmers and increased costs of production to the large
farmers. On contrary, several studies (SCA, 1990) show that the climate change
adversely affects livestock and poultry production.
Livestock
production is highly sensitive to climate change and that there is a non-linear
relationship between climate change and livestock productivity (Kabubo-Mariara,
2009). Rising temperature increases lignification of plant tissues and reduces
the digestibility (Minson, 1990), reducing meat and milk production in
range-based livestock production system. Increased heat stress is another
pathway affecting the livestock production. The increased heat alters heat
exchange between animal and environment affecting the feed intake and
metabolism (SCA, 1990. Such stresses will affect growth and productivity of the
animals. But, effects vary from species to species. For example, water
buffaloes need frequent bath for heat exchange. Drying of ponds due to drought
can deprive the buffaloes for taking baths affecting adversely the productivity
of the buffaloes. Similarly, the increased energy deficits may decrease cow
fertility, fitness, and longevity (King et al., 2006). Increased
temperature and humidity will increase the risks of mortality and morbidity
among the livestock and poultry. Amundson et al. (2005) also reported a
decline in conception rates of cattle (Bos
taurus) for temperatures above 23.4°C. But, it is also suggested that
impacts of heat stress may be relatively minor for the more intensive livestock
production systems where some control can be exercised over the exposure of
animals to climate change (Rotter and van de Geijn, 1999). It means that the loss
in the livestock production depends on the degree of control of the shed. As
the developed countries can control the livestock production conditions
minimizing the losses from the climate change, the global price for the
livestock products may not increase much due to the climate change. Thus,
Nepalese livestock farmers who cannot control the production conditions of the
livestock are bound to suffer from the both, reduced production and inadequate
rise of the price.
Climate
change also increases mortality and morbidity of animals particularly from the
climate sensitive infectious diseases (Patz et al., 2005-). Increases in
zoonotic diseases among the animals also increase the risks of transmission of
such diseases in the human being. In summary, as a result of the climate
change, Nepalese farmers have to bear loss from the livestock production (Pant,
2011).
Climate
change impacts will include: reduction in the productivity of rain-fed crops
used for livestock and poultry feed; reduction in productivity of forage crops;
reduced water availability and more widespread water shortages; and changing
severity and distribution of important human, livestock and crop diseases.
Major changes can, thus, be anticipated in livestock systems, related to
livestock species mixes, crops grown and feed resources and feeding strategies
(Thornton et al. 2009). Such changes increase the costs of livestock
production. The climate change is feared to have impacts on feed crops and
grazing systems, for example, greater incidences of droughts can decrease
fodder production and rise in temperate can change the species-mix in the
pasture (Hopkins and Del Prado, 2007). Increase in the temperature changes the
rangeland species distribution, composition, patterns and biome distribution
(Hanson et al., 1993) increasing the need for feed supplements. With the
climate change, the cost of water for the livestock farming will increase. The
livestock need water daily and frequently and also for animal feed production.
But, the literatures on the added water costs for livestock production are not
readily available. The climate changes also increase the costs of veterinary
medicines in livestock and poultry production. Though the impacts of the
climate change on animal diseases and their vectors depend on the ecosystems
and their changes, nature of the pathogen and the susceptibility of the
livestock (Patz et al., 2005-), the cost of the treatment is likely to
rise. The effects of climate change on the health of livestock and poultry are
reported by many studies (Harvell et al., 1999, 2002; Baylis and
Githeko, 2006). Increased temperature and relative humidity also increases the
risks on aflatoxin development in feed stuffs increasing the risks of poisoning
among the animals (Pant, 2011). Thus, the climate change will increase the
costs of livestock and poultry production and the subsistence farmers are
always losers. However, the loss in the gross revenues from the livestock is
expected to be smaller than those from the crops.
Impacts
on quantity and quality of feeds
Climate
change can be expected to have several impacts on feed crops and grazing
systems, including the following (Hopkins and Del Prado, 2007):
Changes
in herbage growth brought about by changes in atmospheric CO2
concentrations and temperature; changes in the composition of pastures, such as
changes in the ratio of grasses to legumes; changes in herbage quality, with
changing concentrations of water-soluble carbohydrates and N at given dry
matter (DM) yields; greater incidences of drought, which may offset any DM
yield increases and; Greater intensity of rainfall, which may increase N
leaching in certain systems.
Nepalese
livestock farmers who cannot control the production conditions of the livestock
are bound to suffer from the reduced production and inadequate rise of the
price. Climate change also increases mortality and morbidity of animals
particularly from the climate sensitive infectious diseases. Increases in zoonotic diseases among the animals
also increase the risks of transmission of such diseases in the human being.
The
high hill animal herders, however, shared that climate change has declined
fodder and forage production instead it has aggravated the prevalence of
parasites on animals. Discontinuation of local cattle breed from the western
mountain is an evidence.
Conclusion
The
impacts of climate change on agriculture and livestock are very complex compared
to other sectors. As agriculture is the main stay of the Nepal's economy which as
adversely impacted due of climate change. It has negative impacts on crop and
livestock production and productivity, pest and disease infestation, land
degradation, soil fertility, animal fertility and behavior, quality and
quantity of food, feeds and fodder, biodiversity, gene pool and others. It
resulted in increased cost of production, price of food, and also added cost
for irrigation facility, managing pest and diseases, etc. Agro-ecological
extension of some crops due to temperature rise and increased number of warmer
days, prevalence of livestock diseases and parasites and declines in fodder and
forage productions in high mountains. The decreasing crop available soil
moisture, crop failures and reduced crop productivity in middle mountains and
Tarai, and climate-induced disasters rendering agricultural land uncultivable have
become typical to Tarai (MoE, 2010b). Hence, the
climate change affects the food security and livelihoods adversely at national,
household and individual level. It will adversely affect farm revenue,
employment, income and finally on GDP. However, it should not be ignored
in any development effort due to its association with livelihoods of
grassroots, social stability and well tracked development of other sectors.
This paper will capitalize the impacts of climate change on the agriculture and
livestock for adaptation planning for policy makers, development workers,
climate change practitioners, researchers, and academia to response of the
climate change.
Acknowledgement
We
would like to express our sincere appreciation to the Ministry of Population
and Environment (MoPE), and UK Aid, ACT, OPM and Practical Action for providing
the opportunity for this study in NAP formulation process. We also thank to MoALMC,
departments, FAO, CCA project and NAP team for their sincere help and
cooperation.
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[1] Goal 2 of SDG focused "End hunger, achieve food security and
improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture" by 2030.
[2] Emphasized to accelerate agricultural sector growth through four
strategic components viz. governance, productivity, profitable
commercialization, and competitiveness by 2030.
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