CLIMATE CHANGE RELATED POLICY ENVIRONMENT IN AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY IN NEPAL

CLIMATE CHANGE RELATED POLICY ENVIRONMENT IN AGRICULTURE
AND FOOD SECURITY IN NEPAL

S. B. Thakur[1]

ABSTRACT

Agriculture is the main stay of Nepal's economy. This provides about one-third of national GDP and two-third of national employment. Agriculture is highly vulnerable to climate change due to more marginal farmers with small landholding, limited irrigation, low income level, limited institutional capacity, and greater dependency on climate-sensitive natural resources. The adverse effect of climate change on agriculture impacts on farm revenue, employment, income and GDP. Policy formulation in agriculture and food security sector concerning to climate change has become an imperative for poverty reduction, livelihood improvement and economic development. Compliance with global and national agreement, review of existing policy will provide an essential foundation to policy makers, planners and development workers to reform process. This paper intended to find the strength and weaknesses of existing plans, policies, strategies, acts which will support stakeholders in agricultural development.

INTRODUCTION                             

Agriculture is major economic sector in Nepal, it contributes about one-third of the national gross domestic product (GDP), represents 13% of total foreign trade and two-third of the employment to economically active population (CBS 2012). About21% of the land is cultivated, of which 54 % has irrigation facilities and land holding size is only 0.68 ha per household. Over 50% of farmers are small holders cultivating land usually less than 0.5 ha. Agriculture in Nepal is mostly rain-fed and which is climate sensitive.

Nepal is the fourth most vulnerable country after Bangladesh, India and Madagascar (Maplecroft, 2012). The countries with the most risk are characterized by high levels of poverty, dense populations, exposure to climate-related events; and their reliance on flood and drought prone agricultural land in Nepal is highly vulnerable to climate change due to its rugged terrain with steep topography, tectonically active geology and related risks of the natural disasters. On contrary, some experiments have shown opposite results, increasing crop yield particularly rice and wheat with increase in climate variables (Malla, 2008).  Large proportion of marginal farmers with small landholding, limited irrigation, low income level, limited institutional capacity, and greater dependency of agriculture on climate-sensitive natural resources increase the degree of vulnerability (Regmi and Adhikari, 2007; World Bank, 2008).

In general, a policy is principle, rule, and guideline formulated and adopted to reach long-term goals to influence and determine all major decisions and actions, and all activities take place by the governing institutions. It is a deliberate system of principles to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes, which is implemented as a procedure or protocol. There are many plans, policies and strategies developed by government of Nepal for agriculture and food security related to climate change. The strength and weakness of the plans, policies and strategies need to be studied for long-term planning to address climate change and environment issues.

In this regard, this paper tries to communicate the strength of agriculture and food security related current legal documents, plans, policies, strategies and programmes to insight the policymakers, development workers, climate change advocates and producers for addressing the adverse effects of climate change.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This paper is based on review of various national documents of agricultural and livestock sectors. The national legal documents, plans, policies, strategies, programmes and projects related to agriculture and food security were collected from concern ministry, departments, directorates and offices of programme and projects.

Scanning and skimming, and positive sorting was adopted during reviewing. Climate change and environment related important matter were marked and drawn for the study from the Nepal's plans, policies, strategies and programmes. The current plans, policies, strategies, acts, regulations and institutional policy documents were also studied and deliberated briefly.

DISCUSSIONS

Based on the review of current legal documents, plans, policies, strategies, acts, regulations and institutional documents, the following keen points were drawn which are very much related to climate change in agriculture and food security.

LEGAL PROVISIONS

NEPAL CONSTITUTION 2072 BS

Nepal's constitution strongly focused on food sovereignty and Article (36) Right relating to food explained that every citizen shall have the right relating to food, the right to be safe from the state of being in danger of life from the scarcity of food and the right to food sovereignty in accordance with law.

Article 51 (e) Policies relating to agriculture and land reforms stated, inter alia,to make land management and commercialization, industrialization, diversification and modernization of agriculture, by pursuing land use policies to enhance agriculture product and productivity, while protecting and promoting the rights and interests of the farmers, to make proper use of lands, while regulating and managing lands on the basis of productivity, nature of lands and ecological balance; and to provide for the farmers' access to agricultural inputs, agro products at fair price and market.

Under article 51 (h), Policies relating to basic needs of the citizens: point (12) provisioned to provide for sustainable production, supplies, storage, security, and easy and effective distribution of foods by encouraging food production in tune with climate and soil, in consonance with the concept of food sovereignty, while enhancing investment in the agriculture sector.

Article (30) Right to clean environment stated in point (1) every citizen shall have the right to live in a clean and healthy environment, (2) the victim shall have the right to obtain compensation, inaccordance with law, for any injury caused from environmental pollution or degradation, and (3) The Article shall not be deemed to prevent the making of necessarylegal provisions for a proper balance between the environment and development,in development works of the nation.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), 2016-30

Nepal has agreed to the commitment of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) in UN Summit on September 25, 2015. Among 17 Goals, goal two focused on "End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture". And Goal thirteenth on "Take urgent action to combat Climate change and its impact".

National Development Plan

Goal of the thirteenth plan was up scaling of Nepal from least developed country to the level of developed country by 2022, and climate change is considered one of the challenges to overcome barriers to reaching to the goal. Including natural resource and environment conservation, agriculture was one of the important priorities among 7 priorities of the plan. There was mandatory of implementing climate change adaptive development initiatives keeping current and future negative impact of climate change in mind.

Priority of 14th Plan (approach paper)

The Fourteenth Plan stated that in spite of increasing the production and productivity of agriculture for supply of increasing population food and other basic needs, Nepal is importing agriculture commodity every year. It clearly stated that agriculture system has likely to failed completely due to youth migration for employment, poor supply of agriculture inputs, loss of soil fertility, high cost of production, competition with import products, stratified agriculture land and change in land utilization, variation in weather because of climate change, So, it is urgent need to result oriented actions with effective agricultural plans for future commercial agriculture.

Fourteenth Plan specified as challenge of transformation of subsistence agriculture in competitive and commercial for industrial development and climate change adaptation action to reduce energy crisis and possible disaster for socio-economic development efforts. Since large number of small and medium farmers in agriculture, it has challenge to build adaptive capacity to climate change and various natural disasters. This plan has taken strategy to develop and disseminate climate smart agriculture technology for reducing the negative effect of climate change and disaster.

Strategies and visions

AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY (ADS) 2015

ADS has vision of agricultural sector growth through four strategic components including governance, productivity, profitable commercialization, and competitiveness.  The acceleration of inclusive, sustainable, multi-sector, and connectivity-based growth is expected to result in increased food and nutrition security, poverty reduction, agricultural trade competitiveness, higher and more equitable income of rural households, and strengthened farmers’ rights. All outcomes, outputs, and activities of the ADS will contribute to improve food and nutrition security either directly or indirectly.

Among four components, Component two of the ADS focused on productivity for food and nutrition security by (i) increasing the volume of food production in Nepal in a sustainable way through higher productivity and sustainable use of natural resources; and (ii) reducing vulnerability of farmers through improved food/feed/seed reserves, improved preparedness and response to emergencies, and climate smart agricultural practices.

ADS's Climate Change and Natural Resource Management:

Available evidence on climate change in Nepal indicates increasing temperatures and different patterns of monsoon precipitations. The impact of climate change on agriculture in Nepal is currently studied, but even the preliminary evidence suggests the need of introducing appropriate adaptation mechanisms to increase resilience of farmers to climate change. At the same time it is important to understand the feasibility of mitigation mechanisms including clean development mechanisms and disaster risk reduction that could be beneficial to farmers. The issue is how to ensure sustainable modernization of agriculture and commercialization while strengthening resilience to climate change.

Improved productivity of land and labor is at the cornerstone of the ADS. Agricultural productivity requires the adoption of appropriate technologies and know-how to increase efficiency and sustainability of agricultural production consistently with market demand and food security needs of subsistent farmers. Among four measures to raise agricultural productivity efficient and sustainable practices and use of natural resources (land, water, soils, and forests); and increased resilience to climate change and disasters are climate change related.

Though, the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) Progress Report 2010 stated that the decreased poverty rate and reduction in the population suffering chronic food insecurity. The report also focused that greater attention to environmental conservation and adaptation to climate change.

SEED VISION 2013-25

The Seed Vision aims to increase crop productivity, raise income and generate employment opportunities through self-sufficiency, import substitution and export promotion of quality seeds. Seed visioning assignment was implemented for the many reasons, inadequate location specific varietal choices and limited number of crop varieties mostly due to climate change is a major one.  

Among four major significant direct and indirect impacts the two impacts i.e. ensuring food security and reducing poverty, and contributing in biodiversity conservation and adapting to adverse impact of climate change which is related to climate change.

Biodiversity conservation and climate change

The chapter includes the context of changing climate scenario in Nepal, it also focused particularly in developing and promoting climate resilient crop varieties (drought, flood and heat tolerant, etc.) using rich biodiversity. The promotion of climate resilient seed varieties will sensitize farming communities on climate change and allows for climate adaptation options in terms of food production. This will have impact on stabilizing food production and reducing risks of farming communities, resulting in increased livelihood options and strengthened capacity to adapt adverse effect of climate change.

NARC strategic vision 2011-30

The vision of the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) is to tap institutional, human, and financial resources from the government and a wider spectrum of stakeholders—civil society, research centers, donors, and ultimately the private sector—to move the system from agricultural research and development to agricultural research for development.

NARC has given future research priorities will be based on creating and scaling up technologies for environmental sustainability including food security, poverty reduction, value addition, export promotion and cost effectiveness.ox 1. Research Areas of NARC

NARC's Natural Resource Management and Climate Change Thematic Area

Environment problems such as deforestation, nutrient mining, soil erosion and land degradation, eutrophication of surface water, increased encroachment of marginal lands for cropping, degradation of range and pasture lands and reduced level of agro-biodiversity are directly related to increased pressure on land and water. There is need to maintain long-term balance between sustainable agriculture, natural resources, and ecological security which is possible through continuous research and development in the sectors. In spite of all those, NARC also needs to further refine its policy on conservation of agro-biodiversity and agricultural genetic resources through in-situ and ex-situ conservation strategies.

It also focused on agro-ecological diversity and environmental sustainability, due consideration has given in creating and adjusting the technologies (Indigenous knowledge, traditional practices and local resources) to exploit benefits arising and counter any negative effect brought out by climate change.

POLICIES

NATIONAL AGRO-BIODIVERSITY POLICY 2007 (2063 BS)

This policy vision is to conserve and sustainable use of agricultural genetic resources / materials and associated traditional knowledge with the participation of concerned stakeholders for present and future generations. In national and international level, effort has been made to conserve biological diversity. The policy intends to recognize agro-biodiversity as an integral component of biodiversity based on the spirit of international treaties/ agreements and national initiatives in order to ensure social, economic and environmental benefits to the Nepalese people.

The objectives focused, inter alia, to enhance agricultural growth and ensure food security by conserving, promoting and sustainably using agro-biodiversity; to create effective management, commercialization and use of agricultural genetic resources in the present context of exploiting local national and international markets and in international regulations on trade; to contribute in maintaining sustainable ecological balances(ecosystems services) over time, and to promote the conservation and use of agro-biodiversity in the contexts of national seed, food quality and safety, and product marketing regulations.

NATIONAL AGRICULTURE POLICY, 2004 (2061)

The objective of this policy is to create an enabling environment for agriculture-led rural development. It emphasizes competitiveness of agriculture sector encouraging farmers to go for commercial production. The policy aims at increasing productivity and promoting natural resources to utilize them in the interest of farmers. The long-term vision of the agriculture sector is to bring improvement in the living standards through sustainable agricultural development by transforming subsistence agricultural system into a commercial and competitive agricultural system. The policy emphasizes on increased agricultural production and productivity, making agriculture competitive in regional and world markets with commercial agriculture system, and conserving, promoting and utilizing natural resources, environment and bio-diversity. 

NATIONAL SEED POLICY, 2000 (2056 B.S.)

The main aim of formulating this policy is to effectively manage production, processing and testing of high quality seeds and their timely availability to the farmers. The Seed Act of 2045 B.S. and Seed Regulation, 2054 B.S. signifies contribution of the quality seeds in agricultural production. The objectives ensure the availability of quality seeds of different crops in a required quantity, production of quality seeds and promotion of export, and conservation of genetic characteristics of the indigenous seeds and maintain patent right. The main feature of the policy which is directly and indirectly related to climate change; it has focused on conservation of agro-biodiversity and establishment of breeders rights over new variety of seeds. It proposed for conducting ‘research’ (which may also be construed as risk assessment) on GMO seeds.

NATIONAL FERTILIZER POLICY, 2002 (2058 B.S.)

This policy was formulated to support agricultural production by ensuring supply (production, import and distribution) of good quality fertilizer. This Fertilizer Policy is sub-component of the Government’s broad National Agriculture Policy as set out in the Agriculture Perspective Plan (1995-2015). The aim of this policy is to enhance agricultural productivity through improvement in soil fertility and thereby contribute to the national goal of poverty alleviation. Specifically, this policy emphasizes on the provision of conditions (policy and infrastructure management) for enhancing fertilizer consumption; and promotion of integrated plant nutrients management system for efficient and balanced use of fertilizer. The policy adopts the strategy which relates climate change for sustainable use of manures among other strategies to achieve its objectives i.e. to manage Integrated Plant Nutrients System.

The use of chemical fertilizers causes GHG emission. The policy need to focus on alternate of chemical fertilizers with discouraging strategies.

IRRIGATION POLICY, 2014 (2070 B.S.)

There are many climate related risks associated with the irrigation infrastructure and their utilization. The water resources management and variability of water supply is the major issue related to the irrigation sector. Drought conditions reduce the effectiveness of irrigation systems and can cause long term damage to infrastructure and losses in crop production. Similarly, flooding causes direct destruction of infrastructure and sedimentation within irrigation systems. The vision of this policy is to avail the sustainable and reliable year round irrigation facilities to all the agricultural lands so as to contribute to agricultural productivity. Extension of irrigation services is important in the context of meeting the objectives of increasing agricultural production and reduction of poverty.

This demands promotion of conjunctive use of ground and surface water based irrigation systems along with new/non-conventional irrigation systems such as rain water harvest, pond irrigation; sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation and treadle pump irrigation. In the country, the irrigation systems developed so far are limited to run-off the river system. To make the system good for round the irrigation, it is necessary to develop storage so that the problem of low flow of rivers during the winter season can be mitigated to some extent. The policy emphasizes implementing reservoir-based and inter-basin water transfer types of water sector strategy development and integrated water resources management. The policy aims to develop irrigation facility for the achievement of the objectives related to the climate change, to avail round the year irrigation facility through effective management of existing water resources; develop institutional capacity of water users for sustainable management of existing systems; and enhance knowledge, skills and institutional working capability of technical human resources, water users and NGOs relating to development of irrigation sector.

RANGELAND POLICY, 2012(2068)

In high hill and mid-hills region, livestock farming is the main source of livelihood of people and rangeland is the major basis for livestock production. Rangeland management is expected to contribute to livelihood improvement and food security of the people, reduce internal migration and minimize the effects of climate change. For providing clear direction for managing uncontrolled extraction or harvesting of rangeland resources like herbs and NTFPs, preventing the declining rangeland productivity and biodiversity due to uncontrolled grazing, minimizing the effects of climate change and environmental degradation, evaluating their roles in carbon sequestration, and promoting indigenous knowledge, skills, technologies, this policy was formulated and implemented, inter alia, recognizes the Department of Livestock Services as the lead agency for rangeland management, considers rangelands as under constant and serious threats, which require urgent attention, envisages sustainable use and development of natural rangeland with a view to support livelihood of the local people and also about the development of livestock sector through sustained feed supply and grazing management.

NATIONAL LAND USE POLICY, 2012 (2069 B.S.)

This policy was formulated considering the growing concerns about increasing fragmentation of fertile land and unplanned urbanization. The policy, inter alia: to ensure optimum use of land and control land fragmentation; help establish a link between agricultural with industrial sectors, and encourage optimal use of land for agriculture; categorize for the first time in the country, land into seven categories — agricultural, forest, residential, commercial, public, industrial, and others; to make sure that fertile land is used for farming only, and bar dealings in land allocated for agriculture;  and establish the Land Use Management Department, which will have experts from agriculture, irrigation, environment, urban development and management sector.

LAND USE POLICY, 2015

This policy was formulation to manage the settlements safely from the natural disaster, after the devastating earth quake in April 2015. This realized the problems, inter alia, adverse condition of food security due to reduction of agriculture production and productivity because of increased use of fertile land in unproductive purposes, most of land under fallow and uncontrolled fragmentation. Soil erosion, floods landslides and desertification due environmental pollution and climate change causing to loss of natural resources like environmental degradation and loss of bio-diversity and forests. Ensure food security increasing agricultural production and productivity through conservation and best utilization of agricultural land, and reducing climate change impacts, natural disaster, biodiversity and environmental conservation are major challenge. These things are strongly considered in objectives, sectoral policies and strategies of the policy. 

AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION PROMOTION POLICY, 2014

Labor shortage has become a challenging issue in recent years for agriculture development due to migration of young farmers from the rural areas of Nepal. Thousands of youths have out-migrated for finding employment (in the urban centers and abroad). To address this challenging issue and modernize agriculture, agricultural mechanization policy has been formulated. Agricultural mechanization involves use of different types of power: human, animal, mechanical and electrical. It helps to achieve timeliness in field operations, increased productivity and reduced cost of production, and minimized farm drudgery. It also imparts dignity to farm work and makes farming attractive to educated rural youth. The policy’s salient features includes, inter alia, increasing competitiveness, modernizing and commercializing Nepalese agriculture through appropriate mechanization, and focusing on environment, women and youth farmer-friendly agricultural mechanization.

BIOTECHNOLOGY POLICY, 2006 (2063B.S.)

In order to address the existing challenges of a developing country like ours, this policy formulated to obtain the potentials opened up by biotechnology. The implementation of this policy may assist in increasing the production of food grains through biotechnology, developing a new technology of medical treatment, controlling environmental pollution and promoting various industrial sectors.

The vision of this policy is to increase production and productivity by means of research and development of biotechnology as well as transfer of technology, and improve the living standard of Nepali people by achieving a significant progress in the field of public health and environment.

The overall objective of this policy is to make contribution to the reduction of poverty by developing and expanding biotechnology with its use in the sectors of comparative benefit and its application as a basis of key substitute for the development of the country as well as environment protection and public welfare. The salient features includes, inter alia, fulfill a minimal need of food grains and nutritious food for growing population, thereby assisting in the reduction of poverty, and encourage research and development of biotechnology contributing for developing the forests, agriculture and food sectors in an internationally competitive and environmentally sustainable manner.

CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY, 2011 (2067 B.S.)

Nepal formulated targets-based Climate Change Policy in 2011 to address climate change impacts, and help develop people's coping capacities. The main goal of this policy is to improve the livelihood by mitigating the adverse impacts of climate change, adapting to it, adopting low carbon emission socio-economic development path and promoting the support and cooperation as per the commitments at the national and international mechanism related to climate change. Main features of the policy, inter alia, consider the importance of the sectors that are vulnerable to climate change; enhance the climate adaptation and resilience capacity of local communities for optimum utilization of natural resources and their efficient management; adopt the low carbon development path by making socio-economic development climate change friendly and resilient; allocate at least 80 percent of the total budget directly at program implementation level/areas; establish a semi-autonomous climate change center to coordinate the programs and projects; develop the capacity for identifying the present and future impacts of climate change, quantifying the impacts, adopting adaptation measures to be safe from the risks and adverse impacts of climate change; and establish a separate Climate Change Fund for implementing programs related to climate adaptation and resilience, and low-carbon development, identifying risks, carrying out studies and research and developing and utilizing technologies.

PLANS AND PROGRAMMES

PLANS

AGRICULTURE PERSPECTIVE PLAN (APP)

Government of Nepal has been implementing a 20-year Agriculture Perspective Plan (APP) since 1997 with a view to commercialize agriculture, develop overall economy and alleviate poverty. This plan has identified priority inputs and outputs for consolidated investment in order to commercialize agriculture sector. High value horticultural commodities and agriculture business are priority outputs of APP. It has also proposed to establish strong forward and backward linkages of agricultural production. As focused by the APP, commercialization of agriculture and thereby increasing production and income of farmers is the main strategy of Three Year Plan (2011-2013).

APP design gave priority to certain key inputs (i.e. irrigation, fertilizer, technology, roads and power, and financial credit for agriculture), and key outputs (i.e. livestock, high value crops, agribusiness, and forestry), that were envisaged to deliver the policy’s expected social, economic and environmental impacts. These priorities remain relevant to in the present context, in addition to current and emerging issues though the period of the plan was completed. The ADS 2015 has been developed following the National Agriculture Policy 2004.

Zero Hunger Challenge National Action Plan (2016 - 2025)

The country adopted ZHC initiative as a national agenda holding the vision for preparing a National Action Plan to eradicate hunger by 2025. To move ahead with this process, a roadmap was prepared by MoAD to launch the ZHC initiative and then formulate the National Action Plan covering a period of ten years starting from 2016 till 2025. The objective is to ensure “rights to food” by improving food and nutrition security of people to achieve a society free of hunger and malnutrition by 2025. In this regard, it emphasizes on fostering right based access to food and its proper utilization. Its specific objectives are, inter alia, strengthen sustainable production process for accelerated growth of the agriculture sector; improve food and nutritional status of all people in the country; and improve social protection system for the poor suffering from hunger, poverty and malnutrition.

NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN 2014-2020

The description and analysis of past efforts and achievements, and formulation of strategies and actions are focused around six thematic areas: (a) Protected Areas, (b) Forests outside Protected Areas, (c) Rangelands, (d)Wetlands, (e) Agriculture, and (f)Mountains.

In Nepal, biodiversity is closely linked to the livelihoods and economic well-being of most people. The subject touches upon almost every aspects of Nepalese life, including agricultural productivity, food security, climate, water resources and aesthetic value for society. Agro-biodiversity is the backbone for sustainable development of agriculture, food security and poverty alleviation as it provides both the immediate needs and long-term sustenance of the country’s farming communities. Diversity of crops and animals is particularly vital to the country’s marginalized communities for maintaining their food security.

PROGRAMMES

Programmes and projects will be real image of the policies and plans of any sectors. A national flagship program (FANUSEP) that includes subprograms on Nepal Agricultural and Food Security Project (NAFSP), Food and Nutrition Security Plan of Action (FNSP), and a new comprehensive program on food and nutrition security that will be developed and started over the course of the first 5-year period of the ADS.

Nepal has implemented Pilot Program on Climate Resilience (PPCR) has been implemented among 9 countries in year 2009 with support of climate investment fund, World Bank and Asian development bank. Building Resilience to Climate-related hazards project is one among 5 projects which was initiated by Government of Nepal in coordination with Ministry of Population and Environment (MoPE).

CONCLUSION

Nepal’s main economic sector, agriculture is adversely impacting due to climate change. Climate change has negative impacts on crop and livestock production and productivity, pest and disease infestation, land degradation, soil fertility, animal fertility and behavior, quality and quantity of food, feeds and fodder, biodiversity, gene pool and others. The adverse effect in food security and livelihoods at national, household and individual level affects farm revenue, employment, income and finally on GDP. Study of existing state of the policy documents are required to capitalize to policy maker, researchers, academia and development workers on existing provision for addressing climate change and environmental issues in the agriculture and food security. The studied plans, policies and guidelines have played an important role in order to adapt and minimize the impacts of climate change regarding agriculture and food security in Nepal. It has helped to reduce the hunger, increase sustainable products, end poverty, malnutrition, control land fragmentation and building resilience against climate change hazards, support research in terms of agriculture, food production and forestry.

Nepal Constitution 2072, Sustainable Development Goals, Agriculture Development Strategy, National Agriculture Policy, Climate Change Policy, Agriculture Prospective Plan, Zero hunger challenge and National Action Plan has helped directly for the formation of climate change related policies for agriculture and food security whereas, National Seed Policy, National Agro-biodiversity Policy, Irrigation Policy, Rangeland policy, National Land use Policy, Biotechnology Policy, Agricultural Mechanization Promotion Policy has  indirectly helped in the formation of climate change policies related to agriculture and food security. Policies and plans formulated before climate change policy 2011, has very less consideration of climate change and environment aspects and the policies and plans after 2011, have gradually included and addressed climate change aspects in form of mitigation or adaptation.

There is adequate space in existing policy, plans and strategies for integrating the medium and long term adaptation measures to reduce vulnerability to the impacts of climate change in agriculture and food security.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our sincere thanks to the Ministry of Population and Environment (MoPE), and UK Aid, Act on Climate Today, Oxford Policy Management and Practical Action for providing the opportunity in NAP formulation process for this study. We also thank to Ministry of Agricultural Development (MoAD), Ministry of Livestock Development (MoLD) and NAP team for their sincere help and cooperation.

REFERENCES

CBS, 2012.Nepal Living Standard Survey, 2011/12.Government of Nepal Central Bureau of Statistics. Kathmandu, Nepal

Malla, G. 2008. “Climate Change and Impact on Nepalese Agriculture”, Journal of Agriculture and Environment, Review Paper, Volume 9, June.

Maplecroft (Global Risk Analysis). 2011. ―Climate change risk atlas 2011. Accessed June 12. http://maplecroft.com/search/climate+change+vulnerability+ranking.

MoAC, 1997.Agriculture Perspective Plan(APP), 1997. Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives, HMG, Nepal.

MoAC, 2000.National Seed Policy, 2000. Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives,  HMG, Nepal.

MoAC, 2002.National Fertilizer Policy. 2002. Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives, HMG, Nepal.

MoAC, 2007.National Agro-biodiversity Policy.2007.Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives, Government of Nepal.

MoAD, 2014.A report on Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS) 2015-2030, Ministry of Agricultural Development, GoN, Singhdurbar.

MoAD, 2014.Agricultural Mechanization Promotion Policy, 2014.Ministry of Agricultural Development, GoN, Singhdurbar.

MoE, 2010.National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) report. Ministry of Environment, Singhdurbar, GoN

MoEST, 2006.Biotechnology Policy. 2006. Available at http://www.mope.gov.np

MoEST, 2011.Climate Change Policy. 2011, Ministry of Science Technology and Environment /Department of Hydrology and Meteorology

MoFSC, 2014.National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan .2014-2020.Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Singhdurbar, GoN.

MoIr, 2014.Irrigation Policy, 2014.Ministry of Irrigation, Singhdurbar, GoN.

MoLRM, 2012. National Land use Policy. 2012. Ministry of Land Reform and Management, Singhdurbar, GoN

MoLRM, 2015, Land Use Policy 2015. Ministry of Land Reform and Management, Singhdurbar, GoN

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NARC. 2012. NARC vision. Nepal Agriculture Research Council, Khumaltar Kathmandu

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[1]           Shree Bhagavan Thakur, e-mail: shreebhagavanthakur@gmail.com

ADDRESSING CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON FARMERS MANAGED IRRIGATION SYSTEM THROUGH ADAPTATION MEASURES

ADDRESSING CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON FARMERS MANAGED IRRIGATION SYSTEM THROUGH ADAPTATION MEASURES

SHREE BHAGAVAN THAKUR* and BATU KRISHNA UPRETY**

Shree Bhagavan Thakur e-mail: shreebhagavanthakur@gmail.com; and Batu Krishna Uprety**[1]  email: upretybk@gmail.com

Abstract

Agriculture accounts for nearly one‐thirds of the gross domestic product and two-thirds of labor employment of Nepal. Irrigation is important to increase agriculture production and productivity and sustain country's economy. Preliminary studies and climate variability confirm 'too much water' (increased flood) and 'too little water' (drought) resulting to severe water scarcity and this is aggravated due to climate change impacts. Glacial and snow melt is an important source of the lean flows of snow-fed rivers but model-based predictions indicate possible decline in river and stream flows in future. The inevitable impacts of climate change would be much more pronounced. In Nepal, Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems (FMISs) is deeply rooted in irrigating large agriculture land. Irrigation had a positive impact on crop diversification and commercialization. Smallholder farmers are disproportionately vulnerable to the impacts of climate change which is adversely impacting agricultural sectors and food security.  This paper approaches to enhance understanding on the impacts of climate change on irrigation system in order to inform farmers and stakeholders for addressing these impacts through climate change adaptation planning to build adaptive capacity and promote resilient design of FMIS in Nepal.

Key words: Adaptation, agriculture, irrigation, climate change, farmers, and resilient.

Introduction

Agriculture in Nepal, accounts nearly one-thirds of the national gross domestic product (GDP), represents 13 % of total foreign trade and has engaged two-third of the country’s economically active population.  Agriculture is still accounted as the major economic sector of Nepal (CBS 2012). About 21 % of the total land is cultivated, of which 54 % has irrigation facilities with only 0.68 ha per household land holding size. Over 50 % of farmers are small holders cultivating land usually less than 0.5 ha. Agriculture in Nepal is mostly rain-fed and climate sensitive.

Eastern Tarai faced rain deficit in the year 2005/06 by early monsoon and crop production reduced by 12.5% on national basis. Nearly 10% of Agriculture- land were left fallow due to rain deficit but mid-western Tarai faced heavy rain with floods, which reduced production by 30% in the year (Regmi, 2007)

Water affects nutrition and health through several direct pathways, and supports agriculture and other livelihood functions through indirect pathways. As much as 85 percent of global water use goes to agricultural irrigation, of which 15–35 percent is thought to be unsustainable (IFPRI, 2016).  A recent study identifies five impact pathways linking irrigation to nutrition outcomes for Africa south of the Sahara are: Irrigation as a source of greater diversity in available foods, as a source of income from market sales and employment generation, particularly in the lean season, as a potential source of health risks, reduc­ing nutrition and health status, as a source of improved water supply, san­itation, and hygiene through multiple-use water systems, and as an entry point for women’s empower­ment through increased asset ownership, control over resources, and time (IFPRI 2016).

Irrigated agriculture was practiced in Nepal as early as during the era of Gautam Buddha and he had involved himself in resolving disputes among irrigators. Considering the vestiges of the irrigation infrastructure and the facilities under operation even at present, irrigation development in Nepal can be put under four phases- a) primary phase or the period prior to planned development, i.e., before 1956; b) infrastructure development phase (1957-1970); c) intensive development phase (1971-1985); and d) integrated development phase (1986-date) (JVS, 2017).

Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops. It profoundly influences photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation and utilization of mineral nutrients, and cell division besides some other processes (india.agronet.com). Irrigated land can have yields that are high up to five times than that of the rain-fed areas (Devrajan, 2011). Irrigation has traditionally consumed a large proportion of the world’s water. At the beginning of the century, 90% of water use in the world was for irrigation. Irrigated agriculture produced 40% of food and agriculture commodities from 17% agriculture land. This makes food security critically dependent on irrigation (Wallingford, 1997).  In 1985 first modern irrigation canal, named Chandra canal has been made from the government site after that various irrigation canal has been constructed throughout the country.

About 500,000 hectares of irrigated land mostly from Farmer's Managed Irrigation System (FMIS) in 1956. This area has been increased by 880,000 hectares (74%) under FMIS of total 1.2 million ha in 2009.The FMISs were built, operated and maintained by the farmers themselves with little or no help from state or outside agencies.

Irrigation is an important aspect of agriculture, it is widely recognized that the sector is not performing well and the climate change will only make the situation worse (CDKN, 2016).  Adaptation, including adaptation to changing water resources is often studied at the local scale. However, farmers are the biggest global water users and farmers operate, directly or indirectly, at the world market for agricultural products (Alvaro et. al. 2010)

This paper aims to understand the impacts of climate change on irrigation system in order to inform policy-makers, development workers, climate change advocates and producers to take in to account to identify the adaptation measures for developing climate change resilient design and planning of FMIS in Nepal.

Materials and methods

This paper is based on the review of published reports, journal articles and research papers.

For this, information was gathered from several national and international documents. Similarly, data has been collected through national and international data source. The policies, plans, and strategies were also identified mostly from government institutions for this paper. Policy provision were reviewed from Nepal's policies, strategies apart from that various plans. This paper is solely based on desk review and secondary information which has been adopted through electronic media. It is done through the process of skimming and scanning. Although the climate change has adversely effected every sector, this paper is mainly focused on the impacts of climate change on irrigation system in terms of agriculture. Only the issues, problems, situation related to irrigation system and agriculture sector regarding climate change has been included. This paper has been written with the objective of sharing the knowledge and information about the impacts of climate change on irrigation system as well as to build adaptation options on FMIS for resilient irrigation system.

Discussions

Irrigation is an important aspect of agriculture but, despite long history of irrigation in the country, it is widely recognized that the irrigation sector is still not performing well as it could and that climate change will only make the situation worse. In Nepal irrigation is classified on the basis of topography of the terrain traversed by the rivers. Such as Hill irrigation system which includes the system which tap into rivers whose gradients changes rapidly as they flow downhill, and Tarai irrigation system, those irrigation system in which water is drawn from relatively large rivers flowing across the flat Tarai (Pradhan, 1989). Although there are physical and institutional differences between these systems in terms of rate of change of gradient, idle canal length, efforts required at canal maintenance, farm types irrigated, the size of the command area, and rules governing resource mobilization & water allocation (Pradhan 1989). Based on the source of water, there are two types of irrigation i.e. surface and underground irrigation.

Glacier melt, precipitation, ground water etc. are major origin of the rivers in Nepal. Origin of the river as source of water, the perennial rivers like: Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali and Mahakali river systems originate in the Himalayas and carry snow-fed flows with significant discharge, even in the dry season. The perennial rivers like Mechi, Kankai, Kamala, Bagmati, West Rapti and Babai rivers originate in the Midlands or Mahabhabharat range of mountains and are fed by precipitations as well as groundwater regeneration, including springs with seasonal fluctuation in discharge. And, seasonal rivers like small rivers in the Terai that originate from the southern Siwalik range of hills with little flow during the dry season which are characterized by flash floods during the monsoon. These all water origin will be highly vulnerable to climate variability.

According to the 2010 Glacier Inventory of Nepal, there are 3808 glaciers covering an area of 4212 square kilometres, whereas the previous study revealed a total of 3252 glaciers covering a total area of 5312 square kilometres (MoSTE, 2014).   Nepal has 225 billion cubic metres (BCM) of water available annually and only 15 BCM has so far been utilized for economic and social purposes (MoSTE, 2014) (WECS, 2011).  Until now, mainly small and medium rivers have been utilized in Nepal for different uses such as drinking water, irrigation and hydropower generation.

But, insufficient rain and increasing temperature cause drought, whereas intense rain in short period reduces ground water recharge by accelerating runoff and causes floods. Both the situations induce negative effects in the agriculture due to problem of water (ICIMOD/ UNEP, 2007).

Nepal’s annual range is 0.04 - 0.09°C per decade, greater at higher elevation. In Nepal, climate change will mean an increase in average annual water yields from Himalayan Rivers at least for the next 15- 20 years. On the other hand, after 2035, it is anticipated that water yields of our rivers would fall dramatically since glaciers would have mostly melted- out by then (Paudel and Gautam, 2011).  

The United Nation’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UNIPCC) forecasted that the Himalaya will be converted into a black rocky mountain without snow and ice by the year 2035 (Climate Himalaya, 2011). Although the forecast may not be true to that extent but a severe water scarcity problem will be faced by Nepal as well as by other South Asian nations. Glacial and snow melt is an important source of the lean flows of four large rivers (Kosi, Narayani, Karnali and Mahakali). Other medium sized rivers also depend on the climatic impact of the Himalayan snow/icy conditions. The Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems (FMISs) also will be affected by climate change in an unprecedented scale.

Irrigation system of Nepal has also been classified on the basis of how they are governed. Systems that are owned, developed and managed by farmers are known as Farmer Managed Irrigation System (FMIS) and those which are owned and governed by the state are referred to as Agency Managed Irrigation System (AMIS) (Pradhan, 1989). Area under the FMIS is considerably large to the total irrigated land (74%).

National development priority

Irrigation facilities developed in 1st, 2nd and 3rd Plan periods fall under infrastructure development phase. During 4th, 5th and 6th Plan periods, multi-lateral donor agencies like the World Bank and the ADB came forward in aid of Nepal in irrigation development. These agencies focused their assistance to convey irrigation water to farmers’ fields with the canal network development from the infrastructure already created and to initiate coordination between irrigation and agricultural agencies, hence the name- intensive development phase. From the 7th Plan onward, i.e., since the mid-eighties, there has been a major paradigm shift in irrigation development. Construction oriented development has
been given less importance and new dimensions- such as farmers’ participation through organized associations, rehabilitation of farmers’ canals, management transfer, etc., have been given more and more attention.

The 13^th plan stressed on capacity building of user committee for making sustainable, efficient and effective management and execution of irrigation systems. It concentrated on environment friendly, climate change adaption, participatory development and employment creation while developing, designing and implementing irrigation infrastructures. The mainstreaming of environment, climate change and hazard risk management during the formulation, operation and execution of irrigation projects. Similarly, 14^th plan realized that risk management of climate change induced effects on water availability is the major challenge of irrigation sector. It also stressed on ensuring user's participation for sustainable management as well development and extension of irrigation system for irrigation development master plan, achieving goals of Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS) and adaptation of climate change. For supplying the irrigation facility, efficient use of irrigation system and participatory management is focused.

Policy provision

Agriculture Perspective Plan, APP (1995-96) was targeted irrigation as one of the major input for increasing crop productivity and commercialization of agriculture. Current Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS) has targeted from 18% year round irrigation in year 2010 to 60% and 80% by 10 years and 15 years, respectively.

Irrigation Policy, 2014 is the most pertinent policy in irrigation sector which describes many climate related risks associated with the irrigation infrastructure and their utilization. Drought conditions reduce the effectiveness of irrigation systems and can cause long term damage to infrastructure and losses in crop production. Similarly, flooding causes direct destruction of infrastructure and sedimentation within irrigation systems. Policy vision to avail the sustainable and reliable year round irrigation facilities to all the agricultural lands so as to contribute to agricultural productivity by extension of irrigation services for reducing poverty.

This demands promotion of conjunctive use of ground and surface water based irrigation systems along with new/non-conventional irrigation systems such as rain water harvest, pond irrigation; sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation and treadle pump irrigation. The irrigation systems developed so far are limited to run-off the river system. To make the system good for round the irrigation, it is necessary to develop storage for flow of rivers during the winter season. The policy emphasizes implementing reservoir-based and inter-basin water transfer types of water sector strategy development and integrated water resources management. The policy aims to develop irrigation facility for the achievement of the objectives related to the climate change, to avail round the year irrigation facility through effective management of existing water resources; develop institutional capacity of water users for sustainable management of existing systems; and enhance knowledge, skills and institutional working capability of technical human resources, water users and NGOs relating to development of irrigation sector.

Multiple use of FMIS

Water is used for several purposes from demography, agricultural practices, power generation, changes in economy/ technology water shed characteristics and others. Water plays an important role in the irrigation system as it at first make the soil fertile for crops to grow, to harvest the crop till the proper growth and edibility of the crops it is very important.

Besides water utilizing for agriculture in FMIS, it is used for drinking water and sanitation based on drinkable condition, micro hydropower generation, water mills, livestock drinking water, fish and duck farming, other industrial use.

FMIS is the vibrant systems occupying special status in national economy and food security system. The FMIS has the long history, active institution, and democratic governance as rule and regulations on their own and implement them with consensus of the community (Pradhan, 2000).

Impacts of the climate change on irrigation

Irrigation and agriculture are closely related with each other. Irrigation has become a backbone for the development and economic prosperity. The major crops grown under irrigated conditions are found to contribute to a higher level of crop productivity and net income than those in rain fed conditions. In addition, it was found that irrigation had a positive impact on crop diversification and commercialization. Farmers having irrigation and market facilities were found to shift from traditional cereal production to commercial vegetable production (Regmi.et.al. 2000). The impact of climate change on water resources is therefore one of the most important reasons for concern about unabated greenhouse gas emissions. (Alvaro et. al. 2010).

The principal threats to the irrigation sector in Nepal are increase in temperature leading to an increase in evapotranspiration rates; changing precipitation altering the effective rainfall and 80% reliable daily events;  increasing river flows leading to higher 80% reliable river discharges; and increasing intensity of rainfall and decreasing return periods leading to an increase in flash floods, storms and landslides. These threats will lead to shifting irrigation demand and supply that will require a change in irrigation planning; and changes in flooding which will require modifications to irrigation infrastructure design.

 Due to the scarcity of the water farmers were found to shift from traditional cereal production to commercial vegetable production (Regmi et.al. 2000). Even with sufficient irrigation water in mountain "khet" (irrigated) areas but low temperature of irrigation water has a negative effect on crop productivity.

Irrigation system have been getting poor due to alternation of precipitation pattern, changes in groundwater availability, change in surface flows (extreme rainfall patterns, flood, droughts, etc.). As most of the irrigation system in Nepal are fed by medium or small rivers, which entirely depend on the rain. Moreover, the water use efficiency and agricultural productivity in both the traditional farmer managed practices and large public irrigation system are found to be low. Among the other obstacles, inadequate irrigation is the major for the increasing agricultural productivity.

FMIS is facing challenges by population growth, pressure for increased demand on food, environmental degradation, and completion on the allocation of water (Prachanda, 2000).

Irrigated agriculture is very dependent on the rainfall and only provides partial protection against drought: any changes to rainfall patterns will affect both supply and demand for irrigation water. There are irrigation systems which have access to a reliable and adequate supply of water for the command area even under present climate, so any changes in climate can be expected to have a direct impact.

A report of irrigation system revealed that there are four major and important effects for irrigated agriculture are: reduced run-off rivers, due to changing rainfall patterns in the catchment; increased flood flows due to more intense rainfall; increased demand for water due to higher temperatures and more erratic rainfall, and changes in crop suitability due to temperature changes.

FMIS as climate change adaptation measure and resilient irrigation

Rapid climate change have raised the concern of floods and droughts and existing arrangements for irrigation design and management may no longer be appropriate.  FMIS contribute substantially to the agricultural production of the country, have been managed well and, in general, give better yields. Usually, their infrastructure is simple and lacks provision for water control and management. This will help reduce the incidence of poverty, unemployment and under-employment. As the local knowledge, skill and materials as well as indigenous technologies have been largely utilized in the FMIS, this will be highly adaptable and resilient too. FMIS virtues have made them sustainable since time immemorial with minimum damage to natural environment and at the same time meeting growing demand for food and employment.

FMISs function well for so long due to FMISs communities have indigenous but ultra-modern knowledge of layout, construction, management, ecology and hydrology. They have built irrigation structures simple and varying geophysical environment without the aid of modern equipment. The FMISs were constructed, operated and maintained for centuries with least damage and threat to environment and humanity. The perpetuation of accumulated experience, skill and the knowledge have enabled them balance water use, conserve natural ecosystem, generate employment and feed rapidly growing population, build social capital for collective action and maintain communal integrity, make best use of local resources and indigenous technology, and keep several FMISs alive ( Shivakoti and Shrestha, 2004).

The term is FAO has coined "Climate-Smart Agriculture” at the Hague Conference on Agriculture, Food Security, and Climate Change in 2010. The definition says “sustainably increases productivity, enhances resilience, reduces/removes greenhouse gas emissions, and enhances achievement of national food security and development goals” (FAO 2010). Water smart "technologies which conserve water, suitable for drought/flood conditions, increase water use efficiency, etc." is a component of climate smart agriculture.

Irrigation is a high priority for the Government of Nepal, so it is critical for wise investments and take appropriate account of climate change. But, current policies for irrigation do not adequately consider climate change and too often action is taken with limited coordination and cooperation between sectors. Climate change adaptation in irrigation sector should be prioritized through institutional policy and procedure arrangement.

FMIS's irrigation is designed and managed on largely traditional ways, and is highly sensitive to climate. Measures to make irrigation perform better under the present climate are to be equally suited under future climate. Though, they will not be suitable appropriate, but irrigation should be designed to be adaptable rather to suit a particular future climate. FMIS of small and medium irrigation can generally be adapted at relatively low cost, and it is more sensible.  The future adaptation plan for irrigation should be more resilient and efficient too in water scarce situation.

Climate change information for use to the irrigation sector in developing climate change resilient design and planning are historical and future projection on change in air temperature, change in annual and seasonal rainfall, change in flood, change in rainfall, change in sediment transport, and change in flows and flow duration.

As the models suggest that there will be an increase in flood magnitude and frequencies which may result in damage of irrigation infrastructure during monsoon season. The existing water resources infrastructures, which have been designed and constructed earlier, based on past flow data and regime, might be less appropriate or even inappropriate in the new flow regime under climate change. The models also reveal decreasing lean flows during non-monsoon seasons, when there is more irrigation water requirement. Increasing temperature would increase the water requirement on one hand and decrease the water availability during dry season on the other. This would result in a growing gap between demand and supply of water for irrigation.

Several adaptation measures can be followed for the proper management of irrigation sector like the development of irrigation infrastructure and its improvement by improving the irrigation water service in different regions, by improving the irrigation service and improvement in the institutional policy. Focused should be given for the development of new and scientific irrigation technology in order to get maximum benefit. Irrigated land is very important for the income expenditure of poor family as it helps to maintain a balanced cycle without any fluctuation in the economy.

Adaptation is very important in order to increase water efficiency. Water is the second name of life without it no one can survive we must step forward to reduce its unnecessary consumption. As agriculture sector consumes large amount of water it is very important to make changes in the consumption of water in this sector. Several methods can be used for this. Such as crops which needs more water can be replaced by the crops which needs less water, irrigation technology like: sprinkler methods, drip methods, rain gun methods, overhead methods can be used in order to reduce the consumption of water.

Conclusion

Glacier melt, precipitation, ground water etc. are major origin of the rivers in Nepal. Irrigation and agriculture are closely related with each other. Irrigation has become a backbone for the development and economic prosperity. Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops for photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation and utilization of mineral nutrients, and cell division. FMIS is covering large area of total irrigated land. Climate change of increased temperature and changing precipitation causing drought and flood have several negative effects on FMISs. It resulted in reduction of agriculture productivity and food production and enhancing poverty of Nepal. It is imperative to identify approaches that strengthen ongoing economic development efforts and enhance the adaptive capacity of farmers, their households and their communities. The adaptation measures are essential for making irrigation resilient through research, policy arrangements, institutional capacity building and substantial investment in this sector. Accelerating climate change has high impacts in irrigation and water sector has crucial for medium and long term adaptation planning. This paper will support to link experts, policy makers, planners, farmers and irrigation institutions towards making resilient irrigation for increased food production and prosperity of the country. The fine tuning them to respond to the current challenges will benefit not only the FMISs but also the entire humanity.

Acknowledgement

We would like to express our sincere appreciation to the Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE), and UK Aid, ACT, OPM and Practical Action for providing the opportunity for this study in NAP formulation process. We also thank to MoAD, MoLD, MoIr, departments, and NAP team for their sincere help and cooperation.

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[1] *Agriculture and food security, Thematic lead and **Team leader of NAP formulation process; and NAP formulation is a government-led process with overall coordination of the Ministry of Population and Environment.