ADDRESSING CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS
ON FARMERS MANAGED IRRIGATION SYSTEM THROUGH ADAPTATION MEASURES
SHREE
BHAGAVAN THAKUR* and BATU KRISHNA UPRETY**
Shree Bhagavan
Thakur e-mail: shreebhagavanthakur@gmail.com;
and Batu Krishna Uprety**[1] email: upretybk@gmail.com
Abstract
Agriculture
accounts for nearly one‐thirds of the gross domestic product and two-thirds of
labor employment of Nepal. Irrigation is important to increase agriculture
production and productivity and sustain country's economy. Preliminary studies
and climate variability confirm 'too
much water' (increased flood) and 'too little water' (drought) resulting to severe
water scarcity and this is aggravated due to climate change impacts. Glacial and snow melt is an
important source of the lean flows of snow-fed rivers but model-based
predictions indicate possible decline in river and stream flows in future. The
inevitable impacts of climate change would be much more pronounced. In Nepal, Farmer
Managed Irrigation Systems (FMISs) is deeply rooted in irrigating large
agriculture land. Irrigation had a positive impact on crop diversification and
commercialization. Smallholder farmers are disproportionately vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change which is adversely impacting agricultural sectors and
food security. This paper approaches to enhance
understanding on the impacts of climate change on irrigation system in order to
inform farmers and stakeholders for addressing these impacts through climate
change adaptation planning to build adaptive capacity and promote resilient
design of FMIS in Nepal.
Key
words: Adaptation, agriculture, irrigation,
climate change, farmers, and resilient.
Introduction
Agriculture
in Nepal, accounts nearly one-thirds of the national gross domestic product
(GDP), represents 13 % of total foreign trade and has engaged two-third of the
country’s economically active population.
Agriculture is still accounted as the major economic sector of Nepal
(CBS 2012). About 21 % of the total land is cultivated, of which 54 % has
irrigation facilities with only 0.68 ha per household land holding size. Over
50 % of farmers are small holders cultivating land usually less than 0.5 ha.
Agriculture in Nepal is mostly rain-fed and climate sensitive.
Eastern Tarai faced
rain deficit in the year 2005/06 by early monsoon and crop production reduced
by 12.5% on national basis. Nearly 10% of Agriculture- land were left fallow
due to rain deficit but mid-western Tarai faced heavy rain with floods, which
reduced production by 30% in the year (Regmi, 2007)
Water affects nutrition
and health through several direct pathways, and supports agriculture and other
livelihood functions through indirect pathways. As
much as 85 percent of global water use goes to agricultural irrigation, of
which 15–35 percent is thought to be unsustainable (IFPRI, 2016). A recent
study identifies five impact pathways linking irrigation to nutrition outcomes
for Africa south of the Sahara are: Irrigation as a source of greater diversity in available foods, as a
source of income from market sales and employment generation, particularly in
the lean season, as a potential source of health risks, reducing nutrition and
health status, as a source of improved water supply, sanitation, and hygiene
through multiple-use water systems, and as an entry point for women’s empowerment
through increased asset ownership, control over resources, and time (IFPRI
2016).
Irrigated agriculture
was practiced in Nepal as early as during the era of Gautam Buddha and he had
involved himself in resolving disputes among irrigators. Considering the vestiges
of the irrigation infrastructure and the facilities under operation even at
present, irrigation development in Nepal can be put under four phases- a)
primary phase or the period prior to planned development, i.e., before 1956; b)
infrastructure development phase (1957-1970); c) intensive development phase
(1971-1985); and d) integrated development phase (1986-date) (JVS, 2017).
Water is one of the
most important inputs essential for the production of crops. It profoundly
influences photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation and
utilization of mineral nutrients, and cell division besides some other
processes (india.agronet.com). Irrigated land can have yields that
are high up to five times than that of the rain-fed areas (Devrajan,
2011). Irrigation has traditionally consumed a large proportion of the world’s
water. At the beginning of the century, 90% of water use in the world was for
irrigation. Irrigated agriculture produced 40% of food and agriculture
commodities from 17% agriculture land. This makes food security critically
dependent on irrigation (Wallingford, 1997).
In 1985 first modern irrigation canal, named Chandra canal has been made
from the government site after that various irrigation canal has been
constructed throughout the country.
About 500,000 hectares
of irrigated land mostly from Farmer's Managed Irrigation System (FMIS) in 1956.
This area has been increased by 880,000 hectares (74%) under FMIS of total 1.2
million ha in 2009.The FMISs were built, operated and maintained by the farmers
themselves with little or no help from state or outside agencies.
Irrigation is an
important aspect of agriculture, it is widely recognized that the sector is not
performing well and the climate change will only make the situation worse
(CDKN, 2016). Adaptation,
including adaptation to changing water resources is often studied at the local
scale. However, farmers are the biggest global water users and farmers operate,
directly or indirectly, at the world market for agricultural products (Alvaro et. al. 2010)
This paper aims to
understand the impacts of climate change on irrigation system in order to
inform policy-makers, development workers, climate change advocates and
producers to take in to account to identify the adaptation measures for developing
climate change resilient design and planning of FMIS in Nepal.
Materials and methods
This paper is based on the review of published
reports, journal articles and research papers.
For this, information was gathered from several
national and international documents. Similarly, data has been collected
through national and international data source. The policies, plans, and strategies
were also identified mostly from government institutions for this paper. Policy
provision were reviewed from Nepal's policies, strategies apart from that
various plans. This paper is solely based on desk review and secondary
information which has been adopted through electronic media. It is done through
the process of skimming and scanning. Although the climate change has adversely
effected every sector, this paper is mainly focused on the impacts of climate
change on irrigation system in terms of agriculture. Only the issues, problems,
situation related to irrigation system and agriculture sector regarding climate
change has been included. This paper has been written with the objective of
sharing the knowledge and information about the impacts of climate change on
irrigation system as well as to build adaptation options on FMIS for resilient
irrigation system.
Discussions
Irrigation is an important aspect of
agriculture but, despite long history of irrigation in the country, it is
widely recognized that the irrigation sector is still not performing well as it
could and that climate change will only make the situation worse. In Nepal
irrigation is classified on the basis of topography of the terrain traversed by
the rivers. Such as Hill irrigation system which includes the system which tap
into rivers whose gradients changes rapidly as they flow downhill, and Tarai
irrigation system, those irrigation system in which water is drawn from
relatively large rivers flowing across the flat Tarai (Pradhan, 1989). Although
there are physical and institutional differences between these systems in terms
of rate of change of gradient, idle canal length, efforts required at canal
maintenance, farm types irrigated, the size of the command area, and rules
governing resource mobilization & water allocation (Pradhan 1989). Based on
the source of water, there are two types of irrigation i.e. surface and underground irrigation.
Glacier
melt, precipitation, ground water etc. are major origin of the rivers in Nepal.
Origin of the river as source of water, the perennial rivers like: Koshi,
Gandaki, Karnali and Mahakali river systems originate in the Himalayas and
carry snow-fed flows with significant discharge, even in the dry season. The perennial
rivers like Mechi, Kankai, Kamala, Bagmati, West Rapti and Babai rivers
originate in the Midlands or Mahabhabharat range of mountains and are fed by
precipitations as well as groundwater regeneration, including springs with
seasonal fluctuation in discharge. And, seasonal rivers like small rivers in
the Terai that originate from the southern Siwalik range of hills with little
flow during the dry season which are characterized by flash floods during the
monsoon. These all water origin will be highly vulnerable to climate
variability.
According to the
2010 Glacier Inventory of Nepal, there are 3808 glaciers covering an area of
4212 square kilometres, whereas the previous study revealed a total of 3252
glaciers covering a total area of 5312 square kilometres (MoSTE, 2014). Nepal has 225 billion cubic metres (BCM) of
water available annually and only 15 BCM has so far been utilized for economic
and social purposes (MoSTE, 2014) (WECS, 2011).
Until now, mainly small and medium rivers have been utilized in Nepal
for different uses such as drinking water, irrigation and hydropower
generation.
But,
insufficient rain and increasing temperature cause drought, whereas intense
rain in short period reduces ground water recharge by accelerating runoff and
causes floods. Both the situations induce negative effects in the agriculture
due to problem of water (ICIMOD/ UNEP, 2007).
Nepal’s annual range is
0.04 - 0.09°C per decade, greater at higher elevation. In Nepal, climate change
will mean an increase in average annual water yields from Himalayan Rivers at
least for the next 15- 20 years. On the other hand, after 2035, it is
anticipated that water yields of our rivers would fall dramatically since
glaciers would have mostly melted- out by then (Paudel and Gautam, 2011).
The United Nation’s
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UNIPCC) forecasted that the Himalaya
will be converted into a black rocky mountain without snow and ice by the year
2035 (Climate Himalaya, 2011). Although the forecast may not be true to that
extent but a severe water scarcity problem will be faced by Nepal as well as by
other South Asian nations. Glacial and snow melt is an important source of the
lean flows of four large rivers (Kosi, Narayani, Karnali and Mahakali). Other
medium sized rivers also depend on the climatic impact of the Himalayan
snow/icy conditions. The Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems (FMISs) also will be
affected by climate change in an unprecedented scale.
Irrigation system of
Nepal has also been classified on the basis of how they are governed. Systems
that are owned, developed and managed by farmers are known as Farmer Managed
Irrigation System (FMIS) and those which are owned and governed by the state
are referred to as Agency Managed Irrigation System (AMIS) (Pradhan, 1989). Area
under the FMIS is considerably large to the total irrigated land (74%).
National
development priority
Irrigation
facilities developed in 1st, 2nd and 3rd Plan periods fall under infrastructure
development phase. During 4th, 5th and 6th Plan periods, multi-lateral donor
agencies like the World Bank and the ADB came forward in aid of Nepal in
irrigation development. These agencies focused their assistance to convey
irrigation water to farmers’ fields with the canal network development from the
infrastructure already created and to initiate coordination between irrigation
and agricultural agencies, hence the name- intensive development phase. From
the 7th Plan onward, i.e., since the mid-eighties, there has been a major
paradigm shift in irrigation development. Construction oriented development has
been given less importance and new dimensions- such as farmers’ participation through organized associations, rehabilitation of farmers’ canals, management transfer, etc., have been given more and more attention.
been given less importance and new dimensions- such as farmers’ participation through organized associations, rehabilitation of farmers’ canals, management transfer, etc., have been given more and more attention.
The 13th
plan stressed on capacity building of user committee for making sustainable,
efficient and effective management and execution of irrigation systems. It
concentrated on environment friendly, climate change adaption, participatory development
and employment creation while developing, designing and implementing irrigation
infrastructures. The mainstreaming of environment, climate change and hazard
risk management during the formulation, operation and execution of irrigation
projects. Similarly, 14th plan realized that risk management of
climate change induced effects on water availability is the major challenge of
irrigation sector. It also stressed on ensuring user's participation for
sustainable management as well development and extension of irrigation system
for irrigation development master plan, achieving goals of Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS) and adaptation of climate change. For supplying the
irrigation facility, efficient use of irrigation system and participatory
management is focused.
Policy
provision
Irrigation Policy, 2014 is the most
pertinent policy in irrigation sector which describes many
climate related risks associated with the irrigation infrastructure and their
utilization. Drought conditions reduce the effectiveness of irrigation systems
and can cause long term damage to infrastructure and losses in crop production.
Similarly, flooding causes direct destruction of infrastructure and
sedimentation within irrigation systems. Policy vision to avail the sustainable
and reliable year round irrigation facilities to all the agricultural lands so
as to contribute to agricultural productivity by extension of irrigation
services for reducing poverty.
This
demands promotion of conjunctive use of ground and surface water based
irrigation systems along with new/non-conventional irrigation systems such as
rain water harvest, pond irrigation; sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation and
treadle pump irrigation. The irrigation systems developed so far are limited to
run-off the river system. To make the system good for round the irrigation, it
is necessary to develop storage for flow of rivers during the winter season.
The policy emphasizes implementing reservoir-based and inter-basin water
transfer types of water sector strategy development and integrated water
resources management. The policy aims to develop irrigation facility for the
achievement of the objectives related to the climate change, to avail round the
year irrigation facility through effective management of existing water
resources; develop institutional capacity of water users for sustainable
management of existing systems; and enhance knowledge, skills and institutional
working capability of technical human resources, water users and NGOs relating
to development of irrigation sector.
Multiple use of FMIS
Water is
used for several purposes from demography, agricultural practices, power
generation, changes in economy/ technology water shed characteristics and
others. Water plays an important role in the irrigation system as it at first
make the soil fertile for crops to grow, to harvest the crop till the proper
growth and edibility of the crops it is very important.
Besides water utilizing for agriculture in FMIS, it is used
for drinking water and sanitation based on drinkable condition, micro
hydropower generation, water mills, livestock drinking water, fish and duck
farming, other industrial use.
FMIS is the vibrant systems
occupying special status in national economy and food security system. The FMIS
has the long history, active institution, and democratic governance as rule and
regulations on their own and implement them with consensus of the community
(Pradhan, 2000).
Impacts
of the climate change on irrigation
Irrigation and
agriculture are closely related with each other. Irrigation
has become a backbone for the development and economic prosperity. The major
crops grown under irrigated conditions are found to contribute to a higher
level of crop productivity and net income than those in rain fed conditions. In
addition, it was found that irrigation had a positive impact on crop
diversification and commercialization. Farmers having irrigation and market
facilities were found to shift from traditional cereal production to commercial
vegetable production (Regmi.et.al.
2000). The impact of climate change on water resources is therefore one of the
most important reasons for concern about unabated greenhouse gas emissions.
(Alvaro et. al. 2010).
The principal threats
to the irrigation sector in Nepal are increase in temperature leading to an
increase in evapotranspiration rates; changing precipitation altering the
effective rainfall and 80% reliable daily events; increasing river flows leading to higher 80%
reliable river discharges; and increasing intensity of rainfall and decreasing
return periods leading to an increase in flash floods, storms and landslides.
These threats will lead to shifting irrigation demand and supply that will
require a change in irrigation planning; and changes in flooding which will require
modifications to irrigation infrastructure design.
Due
to the scarcity of the water farmers were found to
shift from traditional cereal production to commercial vegetable production
(Regmi et.al. 2000). Even with sufficient
irrigation water in mountain "khet" (irrigated) areas but low
temperature of irrigation water has a negative effect on crop productivity.
Irrigation
system have been getting poor due to alternation of precipitation pattern,
changes in groundwater availability, change in surface flows (extreme rainfall
patterns, flood, droughts, etc.). As most of the irrigation system in Nepal are
fed by medium or small rivers, which entirely depend on the rain. Moreover, the
water use efficiency and agricultural productivity in both the traditional
farmer managed practices and large public irrigation system are found to be
low. Among the other obstacles, inadequate irrigation is the major for the
increasing agricultural productivity.
FMIS is facing
challenges by population growth, pressure for increased demand on food,
environmental degradation, and completion on the allocation of water
(Prachanda, 2000).
Irrigated agriculture is
very dependent on the rainfall and only provides partial protection against
drought: any changes to rainfall patterns will affect both supply and demand
for irrigation water. There are irrigation systems which have access to a
reliable and adequate supply of water for the command area even under present
climate, so any changes in climate can be expected to have a direct impact.
A report of irrigation
system revealed that there are four major and important effects for irrigated
agriculture are: reduced run-off rivers, due to changing rainfall patterns in
the catchment; increased flood flows due to more intense rainfall; increased
demand for water due to higher temperatures and more erratic rainfall, and
changes in crop suitability due to temperature changes.
FMIS
as climate change adaptation measure and resilient irrigation
Rapid
climate change have raised the concern of floods and droughts and existing
arrangements for irrigation design and management may no longer be appropriate. FMIS contribute
substantially to the agricultural production of the country, have been managed
well and, in general, give better yields. Usually, their infrastructure is
simple and lacks provision for water control and management. This will help reduce the incidence
of poverty, unemployment and under-employment. As the local knowledge, skill
and materials as well as indigenous technologies have been largely utilized in
the FMIS, this will be highly adaptable and resilient too. FMIS virtues have
made them sustainable since time immemorial with minimum damage to natural
environment and at the same time meeting growing demand for food and
employment.
FMISs function well for so long due
to FMISs communities have indigenous but ultra-modern knowledge of layout,
construction, management, ecology and hydrology. They have built irrigation
structures simple and varying geophysical environment without the aid of modern
equipment. The FMISs were constructed, operated and maintained for centuries
with least damage and threat to environment and humanity. The perpetuation of
accumulated experience, skill and the knowledge have enabled them balance water
use, conserve natural ecosystem, generate employment and feed rapidly growing
population, build social capital for collective action and maintain communal
integrity, make best use of local resources and indigenous technology, and keep
several FMISs alive ( Shivakoti and Shrestha, 2004).
The term is FAO has coined "Climate-Smart Agriculture”
at the Hague Conference on Agriculture, Food Security, and Climate Change in
2010. The definition says “sustainably increases productivity, enhances
resilience, reduces/removes greenhouse gas emissions, and enhances achievement
of national food security and development goals” (FAO 2010). Water smart
"technologies which conserve water, suitable for drought/flood conditions,
increase water use efficiency, etc." is a component of climate smart
agriculture.
Irrigation is a high priority for the Government of Nepal,
so it is critical for wise investments and take appropriate account of climate
change. But, current policies for irrigation do not adequately consider climate
change and too often action is taken with limited coordination and cooperation
between sectors. Climate change adaptation in irrigation sector should be prioritized
through institutional policy and procedure arrangement.
FMIS's
irrigation is designed and managed on largely traditional ways, and is highly
sensitive to climate. Measures to make irrigation perform better under the
present climate are to be equally suited under future climate. Though, they
will not be suitable appropriate, but irrigation should be designed to be
adaptable rather to suit a particular future climate. FMIS of small and medium
irrigation can generally be adapted at relatively low cost, and it is more
sensible. The future adaptation plan for
irrigation should be more resilient and efficient too in water scarce
situation.
Climate change
information for use to the irrigation sector in developing climate change
resilient design and planning are historical and future projection on change in
air temperature, change in annual and seasonal rainfall, change in flood,
change in rainfall, change in sediment transport, and change in flows and flow
duration.
As the models
suggest that there will be an increase in flood magnitude and frequencies which
may result in damage of irrigation infrastructure during monsoon season. The
existing water resources infrastructures, which have been designed and
constructed earlier, based on past flow data and regime, might be less
appropriate or even inappropriate in the new flow regime under climate change.
The models also reveal decreasing lean flows during non-monsoon seasons, when
there is more irrigation water requirement. Increasing temperature would
increase the water requirement on one hand and decrease the water availability
during dry season on the other. This would result in a growing gap between
demand and supply of water for irrigation.
Several
adaptation measures can be followed for the proper management of irrigation
sector like the development of irrigation infrastructure and its improvement by
improving the irrigation water service in different regions, by improving the
irrigation service and improvement in the institutional policy. Focused should
be given for the development of new and scientific irrigation technology in
order to get maximum benefit. Irrigated land is very important for the income
expenditure of poor family as it helps to maintain a balanced cycle without any
fluctuation in the economy.
Adaptation
is very important in order to increase water efficiency. Water is the second
name of life without it no one can survive we must step forward to reduce its
unnecessary consumption. As agriculture sector consumes large amount of water
it is very important to make changes in the consumption of water in this sector.
Several methods can be used for this. Such as crops which needs more water can
be replaced by the crops which needs less water, irrigation technology like:
sprinkler methods, drip methods, rain gun methods, overhead methods can be used
in order to reduce the consumption of water.
Conclusion
Glacier melt,
precipitation, ground water etc. are major origin of the rivers in Nepal. Irrigation
and agriculture are closely related with each other. Irrigation
has become a backbone for the development and economic prosperity. Water is one
of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops for
photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation and utilization of
mineral nutrients, and cell division. FMIS is covering large area of total
irrigated land. Climate change of increased temperature and changing
precipitation causing drought and flood have several negative effects on FMISs.
It resulted in reduction of agriculture productivity and food production and
enhancing poverty of Nepal. It is imperative to identify approaches that strengthen
ongoing economic development efforts and enhance the adaptive capacity of
farmers, their households and their communities. The adaptation measures are
essential for making irrigation resilient through research, policy arrangements,
institutional capacity building and substantial investment in this sector.
Accelerating climate change has high impacts in irrigation and water sector has
crucial for medium and long term adaptation planning. This paper will support
to link experts, policy makers, planners, farmers and irrigation institutions
towards making resilient irrigation for increased food production and
prosperity of the country. The fine
tuning them to respond to the current challenges will benefit not only the
FMISs but also the entire humanity.
Acknowledgement
We
would like to express our sincere appreciation to the Ministry of Population
and Environment (MOPE), and UK Aid, ACT, OPM and Practical Action for providing
the opportunity for this study in NAP formulation process. We also thank to MoAD,
MoLD, MoIr, departments, and NAP team for their sincere help and cooperation.
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[1]
*Agriculture and food security, Thematic lead and **Team leader of NAP
formulation process; and NAP formulation is a government-led process with
overall coordination of the Ministry of Population and Environment.
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